Urban Water Use Efficiency and Civil Society in India

This a revised version of the Paper presented by the author at World Water Day meeting held by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), Ministry of Water Resources, at New Delhi on 22 March 2011.

Broadly speaking, water use efficiency refers to practices, products, or systems that use less water without sacrificing performance. According to Donald M. Tate, water use efficiency includes any measure that reduces the amount of water used per unit of any given activity, consistent with the maintenance or enhancement of water quality. Besides, water use efficiency has a clear role to play in sustainable development. For much of the period in human history, water management has focused on manipulating water supplies from natural source to where it was needed. In this mode of development, often termed supply management, water is thought of as a requirement to be met, not as a commodity the demand for which can be altered.

Thus, water use efficiency has often taken a back seat to the satisfaction of all possible demands for the resource. It is only comparatively recently that water managers have begun to focus on how demand can be satisfied without massive supply developments. For example, the concept of allocation based on values of water in alternative uses has become increasingly important, and, with it, consideration of water use efficiency. With the growth in world population and the demand for economic development, increasing the efficiency of water use is certain to become more and more important in the future.

Provision of adequate water supply to a growing urban population assumes greater significance in the context of India due to its implications for economic growth, productivity, and poverty reduction. According to broad estimates, by 2025, over 50 percent of Indians will reside in urban areas. Given this growth of urban population coupled with increasing usage of water due to increasing incomes, and declining water quality because of groundwater contamination and surface water pollution, water problems will definitely aggravate in almost all urban conurbations in India. Recognizing the importance of the water sector, as World Bank suggests, the emphasis should be on improving performance through reforming the management institutions, policies, and planning systems. Therefore, it reasons, to look at the existing structure and functions of urban water supply system and to examine the level of performance of water utilities in India.

Mismanagement in water supply system in urban India is one such serious problem, which is reflected in the presence of weak institutions, low resource mobilization capacity, poor information dissemination system, inadequate service quality condition, low coverage, inadequate and ill-designed supply system, insufficient treatment capacity, unstructured distribution system etc. It is apprehended that these concerns are going to intensify due to rising water demand with the rising pace of urbanization coupled with snags in the supply front. All these developments call for using the approach of performance measurement of urban local bodies to examine their existing strengths and weaknesses and to improve their capacity in the front where they are weak to deliver the services efficiently.

The responsibility of supplying water in urban India is vested with State governments. While the Central Government formulates overall policy for the development of the water sector in urban areas, State Governments lay down detailed policies and set up institutions for the proper management and development of water systems in these areas. The institutional setting for providing water in urban areas varies from state to state. State level Public Health Engineering Departments (PHEDs), specialised statewide water supply and sewerage boards (WSSBs), specialised city-level WSSBs, and Municipal Corporations (MCs) and urban local bodies, are the leading providers of water in urban India. Apart from these, some other bodies such as various Ministries and Departments, financial institutions, external support agencies, NGOs, and private sector’s also play direct and indirect roles in water supply.

Water-use Efficiency Plans

The UNESCAP has prepared the Guide to Preparing Urban Water-Use Efficiency Plans, which aims at informing Governments at the national, provincial and city levels of the importance and priority which should be attached to increasing water-use efficiency in urban areas. While emphasizing the importance of sound institutional and legal frameworks to incorporate water-use efficiency policies and mandates into water resource planning and development, the Guide draws attention to The preparation of water efficiency plans that could be required through a legislative mandate specifying a deadline, or as an element of national/regional water resources management plan, or a condition of monetary grants and loans for water supply projects, or a condition of a permit for a new water supply project.

The UN Document further makes specific suggestion as to how to facilitate preparation of a water efficiency plan such as knowledge transfer on water-use efficiency measures, evaluation of successful pilot projects, utilization of water-use efficiency networks of country experts, provision of a guideline on locallyspecific plan content and technical assistance, fostering communication among agencies with a role in water resources management, and development of a list of “Best Management Practices”.

While incorporating comprehensive coverage of the major issues related to a water-use efficiency planning process, the Guide also provides advice, particularly, on the time required to prepare plans, how to overcome water-use data limitations, and estimate avoided costs (benefits) of water-use efficiency measures. The Guide is seen by many experts to be definitely a valuable document for formulating plans and programmes for improving water-use efficiency.

There is a need to accord higher priority to urban water-use efficiency. However, in a number of the countries, there has been inadequate progress towards the WSSD goal of developing water-use efficiency plans by 2005 due to compulsions of other national priorities such as flood and drought management and expansion of water supply to the uncovered population. Many countries lack a comprehensive and integrated urban wateruse efficiency plan as yet; most of the countries have reportedly integrated elements of such a plan into their broader water resources management plans. On the basis of some UN and World Bank documents, the following actions are identified as the key to the success of urban water-use efficiency in national and regional policy:

• Designation, where appropriate, of a responsible agency as the national focal point on water-use efficiency;
• Establishment of a legal framework and related standards for developing higher efficiency water supply systems;
• Establishment of water-efficient standards for consumer devices and fixtures;
• Metering water service and rationalization of charges based on actual cost of service taking into account the real value of water to facilitate efficient water use;
• Allocation of more funds for water efficiency measures, and placement of a higher priority on funding water supply projects which include water-use efficiency plans or considerations;
• Promotion of the private sector’s involvement in water-use efficiency projects and activities;
• Establishment of a database on water consumption patterns, breakdown by sector, as a prerequisite for drawing up effective water efficiency plans;
•  Development and implementation of extensive communication models and strategies that promote sustained public awareness and education programmes;
•  Documenting and disseminating information on successes and lessons learned from pilot and full-scale schemes, in order to refine future water-use efficiency planning and possible replication.

Undoubtedly water is rapidly becoming a scarce resource, but it continues to be used wastefully in many countries, including India. Therefore, more efficient use of dwindling water supplies is now recognized as a crucial element for sustainable water resources development. Increased efficiency in using the current water supplies could result in essential water savings, thus enabling the deferral of new expensive projects to develop additional water supply sources by several years. Improved water-use efficiency could also deliver environmental benefits by reducing water withdrawals from sources as well as lowering wastewater discharges, thereby decreasing pollution loads in water bodies, as well as reducing energy consumption, say, for water pumping.

Keeping in view the fact that the efficiency of water use is very uneven in many parts of India, urgent action at the national and regional levels is called for to improve water-use efficiency by, in particular, accelerating the development of water-use efficiency plans, and in line with the following recommendations which are based on UN reports:

Adopting two-pronged approach:

1. Formulate a legal framework for the development of water-use efficiency plans and programmes, and consider, where appropriate, inclusion of requirements for
   • Submission of water-use efficiency plans as a condition of applying for water permits, or financing for new urban developments and construction of new supplies;
   • monitoring of plans implementation; and
   • regulating the use of efficient plumbing fixtures in all new construction and replacement projects.
2. Incorporate, where appropriate, water-use efficiency provisions into the existing policies, strategies, programmes and plans for water supply management and development.

The development of a water-use efficiency plan can be carried out along the following stages:

Stage 1: Establish a goal-setting process:

• Assess whether and how water efficiency can save water and funds and what economic, non-economic, and environmental benefits accrue from conserving water;
• Determine reasonable country-wide and region-wide goals for water use reduction;
• Identify specific projects and capital facilities that water utilities could defer or downsize by conserving water, i.e. water conservation can be treated as a source of new water supply.

Stage 2: Identify applicable water efficiency measures for planning purposes:

• Gain knowledge from other countries and cities to help formulate relevant water efficiency measures;
• Give high priority to the control and reduction of leakage of water in supply distribution systems;
• Introduce water efficiency standards and norms for plumbing fixtures;
• Study and implement the pricing mechanisms for water supply to encourage water-use efficiency;
• Tailor water efficiency measures to each type of customer;
• Focus on efficiency measures that reduce peak day demand to maximize capital water supply or sanitation project deferrals.

Stage 3: Evaluate the identified water conservation measures with benefit-cost analysis, estimate the benefits attributed to water-use reduction and understand the conservation impacts on local water/wastewater systems:

1. Focus on capital facilities which are planned a few years ahead and are good targets for benefits from capital deferrals because shorter time horizons leave little time to develop water savings, while longer time horizons have less impact in terms of the present worth of the deferrals;
2. Include additional benefits that are to be incurred from water and wastewater treatment operation and maintenance cost savings (from reduced energy and use of chemicals);
3. Quantify environmental benefits, at least in terms of qualitative descriptions, when water supply is obtained from, or treated wastewater disposed to, environmentally sensitive areas.

Stage 4. Create water-use efficiency plans:

Water-use efficiency plan for an urban area should cover both domestic and nondomestic sectors and include the following components: legislative measures, fiscal policy issues, mandatory installation of water saving devices, water use auditing, water recycling and substitution, stakeholder involvement and public awareness campaigns. Besides, Government institutions responsible for water resources should review the progress of implementing water efficiency plans prepared by water supply authorities, while the agency or government department responsible for urban water supply should monitor the progress of implementation of water-use efficiency plans by the private sector developers or local governments.

There is a need to streamline institutional decision-making and jurisdiction over urban water supply management and responsibilities. Focus should be on management of allocated water resources with clearer demarcation of roles to minimize overlapping responsibilities with other water agencies. Adequate steps should be taken to promote stakeholder involvement in water-use efficiency programmes and activities.

Civil Society and Water-use Efficiency

Civil Society consists of ordinary citizens who organize themselves outside of government and the public service to deal with specific issues and concerns that normal governmental process cannot address by itself. Societies function more effectively when the State and its citizens engage openly on how policies are formulated and implemented. Civil society has come to play a crucial role in a democracy because of being a link between the Government and the people; a civil society bridges the communication gap in the policy formulations and their implementations. Civil societies are witnessing an increasing role in day-to-day affairs at the national and international levels.8 The phenomenon of civil society is no more confined to Western Countries or the United States, but increasingly it is pervading the developing countries in general and India in particular.

Civil Society like India Water Foundation, in tandem with other like-minded civil societies, can effectively help in nehancing water-use efficiency. Water, being a state subject, needs synergy mode convergence between the Centre and state governments and this convergence can better be facilitated by active participation of civil society. At the Centre, State and municipal levels, implementation of water-use efficiency plans may take time. However, water-use efficiency can be ensured by individuals as well. We put forward following suggestions for action at individual level to enhance water-use efficiency.

Holistic Approach

With a view to tackle water-related issues, a holistic approach is required with emphasis on the following key features:

1. Convergence of initiatives of different stakeholders: There should be dedicated implementing agencies with multi-disciplinary professional teams at the state and district level for managing the water resources.
2. Viability gaps management: Resources should be adequately mobilised for bridging the viability gaps for spearheading convergence-focussed water development strategy.
3. Scientific Planning, knowledge management and sharing – Effective measures are required to be undertaken for dynamic management of water-related knowledge resources and their sharing with different stakeholders. Special efforts should be made to utilize the information technology and remote sensing inputs in planning, monitoring and evaluation of the water-related programme parameters.
4. Support to Dedicated Institutions: Additional financial assistance can be provided for strengthening the institutions at the district, state level to ensure professionalism in management of water development projects.
5. Livelihood Orientation: Productivity enhancements and livelihood should be accorded priority along with water conservation measures. Water resource development and usage should be planned to promote local livelihood while ensuring water resource conservation and regeneration.
6. Capacity Building: Capacity building and training of all the functionaries and stakeholders involved in the water development programme implementation is required to be carried out with definite action plan and requisite professionalism and competence.

Gandhiji’s view of the means-end relationship is an ideal basis for tackling water-related issues. Ganshiji Said: “For me it is enough to know the means. Means and end are convertible terms in my philosophy of life. We have always control over the means but not over the end. I feel that our progress towards the goal will be in exact proportion to the purity of our means. They say ‘means are after all means’. I would say ‘means are after all everything’; as the means so the end.” So if proper means are adopted to deal with water-related issues, the problems facing water sector can be resolved satisfactorily.

References

1. Donald M. Tate, “Introduction”, in Principles of Water Use Efficiency, available at http://www.bvsde.paho.org/muwww/fulltext/repind48/priciples/principles.html .
2. World Bank, India Water Supply and Sanitation: Bridging the Gap Between Infrastructure and Service, World Bank Report, January 2006, World Bank South Asia Office, New Delhi.
3. For more details see, david McKenzie and Isah Ray, Urban Water Supply in India: Status, Reform Options and Possible Lessons, available athttp://erg.berkley.edu/publications/McKenzieRay-India-urbanwater-forWP.pdf.
4. United Nations, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific, Guide to Preparing Urban Water-use Efficiency Plans, Bangkok, June 2004.
5. Ibid.
6. Adapted from ibid.
7. Adapted from ibid.
8. For details on the role of civil society see, Thomas Varothers and Marina Ottaway, “The Burgeoning World of Civil Society Aid”, in Marina Ottaway and Thomas carothers (eds.),Funding Virtue: Civil Society Aid and Democracy Promotion, Washington, D.C.: carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2000.